Realism and Impressionism the beginnings of modernism

Realism and Impressionism The Beginnings of Modernism Realism As the 19th century wears on, the pace quickens. Turmoil and flux increase as Europe’s population leaves in droves for other corners of the globe. Business and industry continue their technological and industrial revolution and industrial revolution, and individual workers strive for greater rights and rewards. Nationalism rises, and science explodes. Philosophy and psychology take fire and influence the arts, where reactions against Romanticism turn particularly “modernist.” Emigration During the 18th and 19th centuries 70 million people emigrated from Europe to other continents, mostly North America, but also Siberia, Latin America and Australia. By 1900 the total European population outside Europe numbered approximately 560 million and represented more than 1/3 of the world’s entire population. Not all countries participated in this migration equally. France, which had adopted birth control practices, barely reproduced at replacement level, but the declining death rate, which resulted from better medicine and other factors, allowed France’s population to grow. Nevertheless, it contributed very little to the emigration movement. The populations of most other European countries, on the other hand, exploded and lead to migration on a massive scale. In the mid 19th century, Ireland was contributing nearly half of the immigrants to the United States, and in 4 consecutive waves (1850, 1870, 1885, 1910) 13 million Scots left their native lands with 2/3 of them coming to the U.S. 6 million Germans left (most for the U.S.) and 2 million Scandinavians did the same. 16 million Italians left Italy in 1913 alone. Central and Eastern Europeans contributed more than 9 million people to the waves of emigration. By the end of the 19th century, Europeans had literally populated the globe. Business and Industry During the 19th century, industrial civilization changed from a system of production based on coal and iron to one based on the technology of electricity, internal combustion engine, and the chemistry of synthetic materials. The turning point came in the 1890’s when technological development boomed. An overview of industrial and technological development can be broken into 3 periods: 1. Began in Britain in the late 18th century and by the first half of the 19th century had moved to France, Belgium, Switzerland, and the U.S. However, with the exception of the U.S., the industrial explosion in these countries had slowed after the 1860’s. The U.S.’ share of the world industrial output had climbed from 23 to 36 percent. Business and Industry 2. Occurred between 1840-1873 and witnessed the first real world boom in railway construction and widespread industrialization of the remainder of Europe, particularly Germany, where a great economic transformation took Germany to a position as the world’s 2nd largest industrial producer by the end of the century. 3. Came at the end of the 19th century and encompassed Russia, the Scandinavian countries, Italy, parts of Eastern Europe, and Japan. By 1913, Europe and North America represented 82% of the world’s industrial production. Business and Industry The world began to see huge corporations with multifunctional hierarchical structures. Some companies retained a family structure, but others moved toward a managerial model, with decision-making placed in the hands of salaried executives, and at the same time, the concept of marketing networks created more and more mergers and larger and larger corporations. In addition, the marketplace experienced a dynamic increase in new business centered on new products that emerged from new technologies---for example, automobiles, bicycles, the cinema, and later, airplanes. Workers and Socialism Among the major results of industrialization were the growth of the working class, the development of its organizational forms and its links to other elements in society who were unwilling to integrate with the bourgeois society. The organization of the working class came in three spurts: 1. From 1864—1893, witnessed powerful popular movements and mass strikes. During this time, the International Working Men’s Association (IWMA) and the socialist International were formed. Workers and Socialism 2. Occurred between 1893-1905. saw the rise of trade unions and the emergence of nation-states of political parties. 3. Occurred from 1905 until the beginning of W.W.I included a general expansion of labor and socialist movements. The IWMA was founded in London in 1864 and drew much support across Europe. It was originally intended to be a worldwide workers party through which workers could have a sense of solidarity in struggles to improve their conditions. The movement split in 1869 with the followers of Karl Marx going one direction and the others, known as the “antiauthoritarian faction” going in another. Within 20 years, the movement had splintered into nation groups so that different forms of action and militancy could not develop according to a single model. The movement polarized around 2 centers: unions and political parties. Workers and Socialism The organization of the second International in1889-1891 (a loose federation of organizations) was socialist in nature. According to its agenda, an individual had to work for the collective ownership of the means of production and to recognize the need for political and parliamentary actions. Strikes became their weapon, but by the beginning of the 19th century, the labor movement in Europe proved relatively impotent in the face of rising nationalism and imperialism, its center being the German Reich. The German Reich Unlike the rest of Europe, Germany remained a series of independent states under individual rule. On January 18, 1871, 25 German states, including 3 city-states, joined together to create a unified German Reich with William I, King of Prussia, as Kaiser. It was an authoritarian state whose government was not responsible to the parliament. It held a conservative business class and domination of the civil service by a powerful military. Bismarck, the prime minister of the Reich, was a Prussian and he began a Kulturkampf (campaign for secularization) which attacked Catholics, expelled the Jesuits and placed controls on the Roman clergy. However, because such a campaign also alarmed the protestants, it did not succeed. After 2 assassination attempts on the Kaiser, Bismarck instituted anti-socialist laws. Despite the crash of the Viennese stock market, German industrial growth continued and heavy industry became more concentrated. The country became more urban and population grew. Agriculture was modernized and Germany, practicing a form of capitalism, became the 2nd most powerful nation on earth. The German Reich Bismarck’s foreign policy sought to consolidate Germany’s position in Europe by forging a set of contradictory treaties. By 1882, the Triple Alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was formed. In 1888, Kaiser William II began his search for Germany’s “place in the sun” however, socialist influence increased and in 1912, the Social Democratic Party (SPD) became the largest group in the Reichstag. Its major objectives included universal suffrage in those areas of Germany where 3 classes (aristocracy, bourgeoisie and workers) still existed. They used demonstrations and strikes to accomplish this. This demand proved to be an important point in the SPD’s acceptance of Germany’s entrance into WWI. The “Great War” was expected to last for 3 or 4 months and be over by Christmas. It wasn’t. Scientific Explosion A lot happened in science in the last quarter of the 19th century and the first decade of the 20th century. • Model of an atom was built describing the movements of electrons within an atom and this allowed for remarkable results in spectroscopy of gaseous matter and X-ray physics • Discovery of X-rays • Discovery of superconductivity • Science of genetics formed • Bacteriology was begun Philosophy and Psychology Friedrich Nietzsche—German philosopher whose ideas attacked religion and women Sigmund Freud---(Austrian) developed “psychoanalysis”---the probing of the human unconscious---in the world of dreams Romanticism Does not glorify the past. Seeks the truth. Finds beauty in the commonplace. Focuses on the conditions of the working class. • Represented everyday scenes the way they really looked. • Artists to know: Gustave Courbet, Edouard Manet and Rosa Bonheur • • • • Visual Arts The style referred to as realism ran through the 1840’s, 1850’s and 1860’s and it’s central figure was Gustave Courbet (18191877) Courbet was influenced by Corot in the way he played with light on surfaces, however, unlike Corot, his aim was to make an objective and unprejudiced record of the customs, ideas and appearances of French society. The Stone Breakers was the first painting to display his philosophy to the fullest. A social realist, Courbet was more intent on a social message than on the reaction of his viewers. Therefore, his work is less dramatic and nostalgic than that of others. Gustave Courbet The Stone Breakers Courbet painted two men as he had seen them working beside a road. The work is life size and while it seems objective, it makes a sharp comment on the tedium and laborious nature of the task. Burial at Ornans In this painting, Courbet was criticized for showing a lack of reverence and respect. Both works (this one and The Stone Breakers) depart radically from the more-controlled, idealized pictures of both the Neoclassical and the Romantic schools of thought; they portray the life and emotions not of aristocrats but of humble peasants, and they do so with a realistic urgency. Such images of everyday life, characterized by a powerful naturalism and boldly portrayed, cast him as a revolutionary socialist. A friend of many writers and philosophers of his day, he became the leader of the new school of Realism, which in time prevailed over other contemporary movements. His audacity and disrespect for authority was notorious. In 1865 his series depicting storms at sea astounded the art world and opened the way for Impressionism. The Grain Sifters Courbet painted normal people on a monumental scale that had previously been reserved for heroic or Biblical figures He was also criticized for using his friends as models The Stormy Sea or The Wave Jean-Francois Millet Millet was one of a group of painters called the Barbizon School, which focused upon a realistic-romantic vision of landscape and typically used peasants as its subject matter. The Barbizon did not support socialism, but it did applaud the honest, simple life and work on the land as contrasted to the bourgeois life. In Millet’s Woman Baking Bread, these themes are apparent and the peasant emerges as a heroic figure. The vantage point plays a part here since we see the peasant women from slightly below giving her an added height and dominance to emphasize her grandeur. Woman Baking Bread The Gleaners Edouard Manet (1832-83) Manet was more concerned with HOW to paint, instead of WHAT to paint. He strove to paint “only what the eye can see.” Manet is responsible for bridging the gap between Realism and Impressionism Sometimes he used models, but dressed them appropriately and let them “pose” naturally. Manet’s painting, Dejeuner sur l’herbe, shocked the public when it was first shown at the Salon des Refuses in 1863. In this county setting, we see people that are real and identifiable (Manet’s model, his brother and the sculptor Leehof). There is apparent immorality going on as we see what appears to be a naked frolic in Paris park outraged the public and the critics. If he had chosen nymphs and satyrs, he would not have received criticism, but by having reality in a mythical setting, and a nude women sitting with clothed men, it proved unsettling for the public. Dejeuner sur l’herbe (The Picnic) A Bar at the Folies-Bergère "Le Chemin de Fer" (The Railroad) Rosa Bonheur Rosa Bonheur showed a preference for portraying animals. She as well-known and respected during her lifetime and was the first woman made an officer in the Legion of Honor. History recognizes few females from this period, but Rosa Bonheur established herself as the foremost “animalier,” or animal painter, linked with landscape painting and the Realist tradition. Through contacts, exhibitions, and reproductions spread worldwide, Rosa Bonheur’s work was well known throughout Europe and America. Her unusual ways attracted considerable public attention and she harnessed this interest throughout her life and established a position, commercially and artistically, for her work, becoming one of the most original figures of the 19th century While Bonheur’s work was widely acclaimed, it was generally difficult for women to sell their art up until this point in time. There were, however, several methods which were used by many female artists to sell their art work: 1. Sell to other women. 2. Have a male friend or relative pass work off as his own. 3. Sell work anonymously. Couching Lion Plowing in the Nivernais This is probably Bonheur’s most famous painting. The Horse Fair Realism and Theatre A conscious movement toward realism in the theatre emerged around the middle of the 19th century. Dramatic literature strove for truthful portrayal. Thus, everyday life, with which the playwright was directly familiar, became the subject matter of drama. In realistic theatre the characters talk and act as people in ordinary life do. This was not always a pleasant dramatic experience and some play-goers complained that the theatre was turning into a “sewer or tavern.” Playwrights countered the criticism by saying that the way to avoid such ugly depictions on stage was to change society. Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) From Norway Ibsen built powerful problem-dramas around carefully selected detail and plausible character-tomotivations. His plays usually bring to that began well in the past, with thorough explanations. Ibsen’s concern for detail carried to the scenery and costumes as well and his plays contain detailed descriptions of settings and properties, all of which are essential to the action. The content of many of Ibsen’s plays was controversial and most deal with questions about moral issues that remain difficult today. action conclusion, events and social Ibsen’s most famous play, A Doll’s House, is a great example of a typical Realism play. He is considered to be the father of modern drama. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) Irish Irish Although his career overlapped the 19th and 20th centuries he embodied the spirit of 19th century Realism. This artist, witty and brilliant, was above all a humanitarian and although many Victorians considered him a heretic and a subversive because of his devotion to socialism, his faith lay in humanity and its infinite potential. Of all the English dramatists, many people feel that Shaw ranks as the greatest playwright next to Shakespeare George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) Shaw’s plays deal with the unexpected and they often appear contradictory and inconsistent in characterization and structure. His favorite device was to build up a pompous notion and then destroy it. For example, in Man and Superman, when a respectable Victorian family learns that their daughter is pregnant, they react with predictable indignation. A character who appears to speak for the playwright comes to the girl’s defense, attacking the family’s hypocrisy and defending the girl. She however, explodes in anger, not against her family, but against her defender. She had been secretly married all the time and, as the most respectable of the lot, she condemns her defender’s (and possibly the audience’s) freethinking. The chief theme in Shaw’s plays is that society must protect and develop the individual rights of each person. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950) Shaw opposed the doctrine, “art for art’s sake” and he insisted that art should have a purpose. He believed that plays made better vehicles for social messages than speeches or pamphlets. Although each play usually has a character who acts as the playwright’s mouthpiece, Shaw does more than sermonize. His characters probe the depths of the human condition, often discovering themselves through some life-like crisis. Late Realism Realism now included a great deal more than its 19th century definition had allowed. It included more theatrical staging devices such as fragmented settings and many more nonrealistic literary and presentational techniques such as symbolism. As far as the theatre was concerned, stage realism and the realism of everyday life had parted company. Tennessee Williams (1912-83) Tennessee Williams skillfully blended the qualities of realism with whatever scenic, structural or symbolic devices were necessary to achieve the effects he wanted. His plays, such as The Glass Menagerie and A Streetcar named Desire, deal sensitively with the psychological problems of common people. One of his greatest interests and strengths was character development and this often carries his plays forward as he explores the tortured lives and the illusions of his larger-than-life characters. Arthur Miller (1915-2005) Arthur Miller probed both the social and psychological forces that destroy contemporary people in plays such as, Death of a Salesman. One of the first playwrights to include homosexual characters in his plays. Impressionism The Realist’s search for spontaneity, harmonious colors and subjects from everyday life and faithfulness to observed light and atmospheric conditions led to the development of a style used by a small group of painters in the 1860’s and described by a hostile critic as “impressionism.” the impressionists created a new way of seeing reality through color and motion. This style developed due to competition with the newest technology of the time---the camera. These painters tried to outdo photography by portraying the essentials of perception that cannot be captured by a camera. They emphasized the presence of color within shadows and based their style on an understanding of the interrelated mechanisms of the camera and the eye; vision consists of the result of light and color making an “impression” on the retina. Impressionism In its purest and truest form, Impressionism only lasted about 15 years, but it profoundly influenced all painting that followed. Working out of doors, the impressionists concentrated on the effects of natural light on objects and atmosphere. Their experiments resulted in a different vision of the world around them and ways of rendering that vision. For them the canvas was first of all, a “material covered with pigments”---small “color patches” which together created lively, vibrant images. The subjects painted are impressions of landscapes, rivers, streets, cafes, theatres and so on. Claude Monet (1840-1926) Claude Monet and fellow impressionist Auguste Renoir spent the summer of 1866 working closely together and from that time came the beginnings of impressionism. In his paintings, Claude Monet tried to find an art of modern life by recording everyday themes with on-the-spot, objective observation. He had two aims; representation of contemporary subject matter and optical truth—that is, the way colors and textures really appear to the eye. Monet’s paintings reflect an innocent joy in the world around him and an intensely positive view of life. His work encompasses scientific observation, the study of optics and other aspects of human perception. Monet translated objects into color stimuli. Claude Monet (1840-1926) The scene conveys a pleasant picture of the times, an optimistic view rather than the often pessimistic outlook of the Romantics. Although this is a landscape panorama, lack of linear perspective or atmospheric conditions brings the entire painting to the foreground with almost no deep space. The scene is bright, alive and pleasant. On the Seine at Bennecourt Claude Monet (1840-1926) This painting began it all. One critic referred to this Monet, in a derogatory manner, as an impression of a sunrise. Impressionism got its name at that point. Impression: Sunrise Impressionists often painted the same subject matter times at different times of day and in many seasons to study the effects of light on subjects. Mary Cassatt (1845-1926) Mary Cassatt came from Philadelphia, a minor center for the arts at the time. However, she had experienced difficulties entering the American art market. She first joined and trained with the Impressionists in 1877. She was financially independent and that allowed her to ignore her family’s objection to being an artist (it was deemed unsuitable for a woman, especially one of wealth). In fact, it was her wealth and connections with wealthy collectors in the U.S. that helped the Impressionists gain exposure and acceptance in this country. Cassatt was also able to achieve considerable commercial success herself. You will see that her favorite subjects are women and children. Her brushwork is far less obvious than it is in other Impressionist works. It was like a combination of realism and Impressionism. This helped conventional viewers to understand the works of the Impressionists and closely relate to the scenes. The Child’s Bath Painted in clear, bright colors, Cassatt’s subjects in The Child’s Bath, do not make eye contact with the viewer. Their forms are purposeful and they awaken interest, rather than emotions Maternal Kiss. The Boating Party Young Mother Sewing Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) The surface and textural concerns of the Impressionists can be seen in the work of the century’s most remarkable sculptor, Auguste Rodin. Although his style is not easy to classify, we find plenty of idealism and social comment. Rodin’s textures are impressionistic: his surfaces appear to shimmer as light plays on their irregularities, but they are more than reflective surfaces. They give his works dynamic and dramatic qualities. Although Rodin worked fairly realistically, he nevertheless created a subjective reality beyond the surface, and the subjectivity of his viewpoint is even more clear and dramatic in his pessimistic later sculptures. The Burghers of Calais Commissioned by the City of Calais, France as a public monument, the work honors six leading citizens (burghers) who, in 1937, offered themselves as hostages to the English King Edward III, who had laid siege to the city. The burghers were ready to sacrifice their lives if the city would be spared. King Edward III was so impressed with their courage that he spared both the burghers and Calais. The Cathedral The Thinker The Kiss Post-Impressionism In the last 2 decades of the 19th century, impressionism evolved into a collection of disparate styles simply called “post-impressionism.” Post Impressionists subject matter was similar to the Impressionists--landscapes, familiar portraits, groups, café and nightclub scenes---but the post impressionist gave their subject matter a complex and personal significance. The Post Impressionists were concerned about capturing a sensory experience. They maintained the contemporary philosophy of “art for arts sake” and rarely attempted to sell their works. The did want to share their subjective impressions of the real world, but moved beyond the romantic and impressionistic world of pure sensation. They were more interested in the painting as a flat surface carefully composed of shapes, lines and colors, an idea that became the foundation for most of the art movements that followed. Post-Impressionism The post impressionists called for a return to form and structure in painting, characteristics they believed were lacking in the works of the impressionists. Using the light qualities of the impressionists, they brought formal patterning to their canvases. They used clean color areas and applied color in a systematic, almost scientific manner. The post impressionists sought to return painting to traditional goals while retaining the clean palette of the impressionists. Vincent van Gogh (1853-1903) van Gogh was intensely emotional in pursuing form in a unique way. His turbulent life included numerous short lived careers, impossible love affairs, a tempestuous friendship with Paul Gauguin and a serious mental illness. van Gogh gives us one of the most personal and subjective artistic viewpoints in the history of Western art. In this work, Harvest at La Crau (The Blue Cart), which van Gogh produced during his Arles period, reflects an interest in complementary colors (colors on opposite sides of the color wheel) van Gogh, inspired by Japanese prints, placed large areas of color side by side. Doing so, he believed expressed the quiet, harmonious life of the rural community. Café Terrace at Night A frenzy of energy explodes from van Gogh’s paintings such as this one, Starry Night. Flattened forms and outlining also reflect Japanese influence. Tremendous power surges through the painting, especially in focal areas and we can sense the dynamic, personal feelings and mental turmoil barely contained by the paintings surface. This work represents one of the earliest and most famous examples of expressionism, a style we will study later. Impressionism and Music The anti-Romantic spirit produced a style in music that parallels that of the impressionistic painters. A free use of chromatic tones marked later 19th century style, even among the Romantics. However, a parting of the ways occurred, the effects of which still affect music today. Some composers made free use of chromatic tones and key shifts but stayed within the parameters of traditional major/minor tonality. Others rejected traditional tonality completely and a new ATONAL harmonic expression came into being. This rejection of traditional tonality led to impressionism in music. “Foggy” tonalities with dissonant and irregular rhythms were also characteristics of the Impressionistic style. Music of the Impressionistic time period means creating mood and tone colors. Claude Debussy (1862-1918) Impressionist music can best be found in the work of its primary champion, Claude Debussy, although he did not like to be called an “impressionist” because it had been coined by a critic of painters and was meant to be derogatory. Debussy claimed he was an “old Romantic who has thrown the worries of success our the window,” and he sought no association with the painters. There are however, similarities. His use of tone color has been described as “wedges of color,” much like those the painters provided with individual brushstrokes. Oriental influence is also apparent, especially in his use of the Asian sixtone scale. He wished above all to return French music to fundamental sources in nature and move it away from the heaviness of the German tradition. He delighted in natural scenes, as did the impressionist painters and he sought to capture the effects of shimmering light in music. Debussy is best known for composing dreamlike piano pieces. Claude Debussy (1862-1918) Debussy reduced melodic development to limited short motifs and, in perhaps his greatest break with tradition, he moved away from traditional progressions of chordal harmonies. Debussy considered a chord strictly on the merits of its expressive capabilities, apart from any idea of tonal progression within a key. As a result, gliding chords, that is, the repetition of a chord up and down the scale, became a hallmark of musical impressionism. DISSONANCE and irregular rhythm and meter further distinguish Debussy’s works. Form and content are subordinate to expressive intent. His works suggest, rather than state, leaving the listener with only an impression, perhaps even an ambiguous one. Debussy did not like Wagner’s music calling it “heavy and tiresome.” Claude Debussy (1862-1918) Freedom, flexibility and nontraditional timbres mark Debussy’s compositions, the most famous of which is Prelude a l’apres-midi d’un faune (Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun). (CD Track 19) This piece uses a large orchestra, with emphasis on the woodwinds, most notably in the haunting theme running throughout. Two harps also play a prominent part in the texture, and antique cymbals are used to add an exotic touch near the end. Although freely ranging in an irregular 9/8 meter and having virtually no tonal centers, the Prelude does have the traditional ABA structure. Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) Maurice Ravel is often linked with his French countryman Claude Debussy, and there are some important similarities in their music. Both used the rich harmonies and new scales that are usually associated with musical impressionism, and both had an interest in the exotic. But where Debussy was a sensualist, influenced by the symbolist and decadent movements, Ravel was more of a craftsman and traditionalist, creating a style that was more neoclassical. Although he is considered an impressionist, he followed the classical structures of Haydn and Mozart. Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) Ravel’s style became more and more classical as the years went by. He did not adopt Debussy’s complex sonorities and ambiguous tonal centers. Ravel is known for his orchestra music in which he used symbolism. For instance, in Bolero, Ravel exhibits driving rhythms meant to signify primitive tribal dances and urges. Other works of Ravel---his Piano Concerto in G---use Mozart and traditional classicism as their models. As you can see, some composers stayed completely within established neo-classical conventions of Western music well into the 20th century.